Illegal Bear Trade and Traditional Medicine
Introduction
The use of bears (Ursidae spp.) and their parts dates back to almost 3500 b.c., when the use of bear fat was employed by Shen Nong (the father of Chinese medicine). The use of bear gall bladder may have entered around 3,000 years ago (Mills & Servheen, 1991). Asiatic bears are a walking pharmacy for TM. Hair, bones (hand), teeth, bile, gall bladder, brain, fat and spinal cord are used to remedy various ailments. The bile from bears, gram for gram, can exceed the cost of narcotics (TRAFFIC NETWORK, 1995).
Bear gall, containing the active ingredient ursodeoxycholic acid, is highly coveted as a "cold" medicine used to treat fever, lower body temperature, and reduce inflamed tissues. Other bear parts including bone, fat, brain, blood, and lungs are used to treat arthritis, skin disorders and hearing loss, and to increase strength and sexual potency. Bear paws, meat, and fat are also eaten and considered delicacies. Teeth, claws, and skulls are sold to tourists as curios or souvenirs or made into artifacts or jewelry. Asian bears-including the Asiatic black bear, sloth bear, and sun bear-were once the sole sources of such potions, medications, and other products.
The use traditional Asian medicines (TM) are increasing and the use of these homeopathic medicines in the western world is clearly developing. Many countries, cultures and health care systems use wild fauna and flora as medicine. In fact, plant and animal ingredients are common in traditional medicines as well as in allopathic or so-called “western” medicines. But where western medicine depends largely on synthetic versions of these ingredients, traditional medicines by definition, depend on ingredients from nature (CITES, 1996 ).
With the elevated attention and practice of TM, supplying these natural ingredients legally has become increasingly difficult. Many species of the flora and fauna used to produce these ingredients are either endangered or protected because of the poaching and destruction of habitat, due to human encroachment. However, this demand is fueling a criminal enterprise consisting of poaching, trafficking and consumption of protected wildlife.
The scale of illegal wildlife trade is disturbing. The nature of the illicit wildlife trade makes estimating the value difficult but, some experts estimate the trade at 10 – 20 billion U.S. dollars annually (ASEAN-WEN, 2009). It is second only to the illegal narcotics trade (et al).
Discussion
Bears are a widespread family comprising of eight species populating a variety of ecosystems across four continents: Asia, Europe, North America and South America. Of the eight species, four are prevalent to Asia: the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) and giant panda (Ailuopoda melanoleuca). Two others occur in Asia but are not prevalent, the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). Three bears are specifically targeted for the bear bile trade, the Asiatic black bear, sun bear and brown bear.
The Asiatic black bear has a patchy distribution across 18 countries and overlaps the distribution of Sun Bears in South-east Asia and as far south as Thailand. Asiatic black bears are classified as Vulnerable with a decreasing population trend by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List since 1990. Asiatic Black Bears are nationally protected in many range countries as well as internationally protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and has listed the bears in Appendix I since 1979. The type and extent of threats to the Asiatic black bear vary across its range. Habitat loss and degradation affect bears in parts of their range where annual rates of forest loss are high. However, the major threat to the species in China and South-east Asia is the viable trade in live bears and their parts. The demand for bear products has increased over the past several years and is very likely to be unsustainable, causing populations to decline.
Sun Bears are native to 11 Asian countries and is extinct in Singapore. It is suspected that sun bear populations have dropped by more than 30% over the past 30 years, due to considerable deforestation and uncontrolled exploitation for TM trade. Conservation practices vary by country and specific priorities for sun bears have not been set. Sun Bears have been listed in Appendix I of CITES since 1979 and international commercial trade in them or their parts is therefore illegal.
Brown bears are found in at least 45 countries around the world. However, the natural distribution was larger in the past. Brown Bears are possibly extinct in Bhutan, and are considered extinct in the wild in 15 other Asiatic range states. While some populations of Brown Bears are well known, the dynamics of others remain poorly understood. The Brown Bear is considered to be of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List with a stable population trend, this assessment is greatly influenced by healthy North American and European Populations. Asiatic brown bear populations are threatened and have been impacted by habitat fragmentation, connectivity, human encroachment and poaching for their parts.
Black bears (Ursus americanus) exist throughout most of North America north of central Mexico and Florida. However, the species has been eliminated from most of the Midwest by intensive agriculture and human settlement. Now it occurs primarily in remaining large forested tracts (NatureServe, 2011). As Asian bear populations decrease, either through poaching, lack of legal protection, or loss of habitat, some Asian consumers turned to imports from North American bears to satisfy their needs.
In 1992, the American black bear was listed on Appendix II of the CITES, not because of the status of the bear, but because of its similarity to endangered bear species listed on Appendix I of CITES. All species of bear are now listed on either Appendix I or II. Listing under Appendix II requires the signatory countries to monitor commercial trade in bears and bear parts and to issue permits for such exports. Such lawful export is apparently minimal.
Gall prices as high as $64,000 USD have sometimes been quoted but are misleading and are back-calculated from the price per gram on the street market. In 1995, black bear gall prices paid to North American hunters range from $20 to $250 USD (Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, 2011). More recent prices range from $50+ USD/ gram to $1,000+ USD/ kilogram for bear gall bladders. Prices vary greatly and depend on the size and quality of the product. Research in August 2007 by Animals Asia investigators in Sichuan Province revealed that the wholesale price of bear bile powder was US$410 per kg. A whole gall bladder in South Korea sells for about US$10,000, whilst in Japan the average price for a wild bear gall bladder is US$33 per gram.
The increase in demand and gross profits to be made many criminal organizations added illegal wildlife trafficking to their repertoire of piracy, narcotics and human trafficking. Trafficking of wildlife is made easier by corrupt officials, disguising animal parts in packaging that looks like medicine. Sea ports and airports located around the Pacific Rim can be easily utilized by illegal wildlife, chemical precursor and drug smugglers using false declarations for their cargoes, or other means, to pass through customs. Poachers readily supply these organizations because of the premium prices they are able to offer. The prices criminal organizations offer makes the risk of arrest or confinement worth the illegal effort.
Obstacles to conservation efforts are the socio-economics of the TM health care system and its acceptance in western cultures. According to one study more than one-fifth of the world’s population depends on various degrees of TM for health care. Simply because TM does not fit in with the western health care system does not mean it can be dismissed as superstition or lack medical basis (CITES, 1996 ). Many western medicines have been discovered in TM. One example mentioned earlier in this paper is ursodeoxycholic acid, which is found in bear bile, is now synthesized from cow bile and used to dissolve gallstones without surgery.
Conveying the ecological importance of an animal, forest or ecosystem in Asia and its importance to the ecosystem in North America or globally is part of the socio-economic ideology that is an obstacle in many countries. Ecosystems, some more fragile than others, are irrevocably damaged by the loss of many species for profits by poaching and illegal timber harvest.
Unregulated trafficking of wildlife can spread diseases and viruses that endanger human life. Avian flu and SARS were transferred to humans from wild animals. (ASEAN-WEN, 2009)
Although the point is often overlooked, illegal wildlife trafficking leads to considerable revenue loss to a state through the loss of monies that would have been collected in duties and taxes, if the exports and imports had been done legally.
Conclusion
Traditional Asian medicine and its remedies are not the evil in question. The problem will continue to be the criminal enterprise of poaching, trafficking and consumption of protected wildlife. Organizations (government and non-government), allegiances and treaties between countries and legislation by individual countries are the answer to the many criminal enterprises involved in the illegal wildlife trade.
Organizations like TRAFFIC, World Wildlife Fund, International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora are able to fund, research, recommend and educate politicians and citizens about the impacts of illegal wildlife trade and its other enterprises. The changing or adjustment of TM practices and remedies toward the use of alternatives available over the use of traditional medicines made from threatened or endangered animals is a very difficult task.
Legislation enacting tougher and stricter laws regulating the sale or trade of wildlife is a step in the right direction. Concerns over the differing laws from state to state regulating the sale or trade of bear parts spawned a campaign to enact a federal law in the United States banning all trade in bear gallbladders and other “viscera.” Legislation entitled “The Bear Protection Act” has been proposed in the past several sessions of the U.S. Congress and was reintroduced in 2001. The last effort was H.R. 3480: Bear Protection Act of 2009 which did not pass.
Continued perseverance from law enforcement cracking down on the criminal organizations that deal in and support the illegal wildlife trade can make a difference. By cracking down on poaching, trafficking and consumption of threatened wildlife and parts, the consequences and economics may make it easier to change the attitudes of the consumers and TM industry. Law enforcement agencies like INTERPOL – Wildlife Crime Division, ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Colorado Division of Wildlife are tasked with protection of wildlife for future generations.
The use of bear parts is an important part of TM but alternative options are available. Bears will continue important part of TM until attitudes change. The loss of these individual bear species to the illegal wildlife trade is a threat to the ecosystems they are a part of and a global concern.
Bibliography
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Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, M. (2011). FAQ. Massachusetts Department of Fish and Game, Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife.
Mills, J. A., & Servheen, C. (1991). The Asian Trade in Bears and Bear Parts. (W. W. Fund, Ed.) Landover, Maryland: Corporate Press Inc.
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